Bird of Paradise

The birds-of-paradise are members of the family Paradisaeidae of the order Passeriformes. The majority of species in this family are found on the island of New Guinea and its satellites, with a few species occurring in the Moluccas and eastern Australia. The family has forty species in 14 genera. The members of this family are perhaps best known for the plumage of the males of most species, in particular highly elongated and elaborate feathers extending from the beak, wings or head. For the most part they are confined to dense rainforest habitat. The diet of all species is dominated by fruit and to a lesser extent arthropods. The birds-of-paradise have a variety of breeding systems, ranging from monogamy to lek-based polygamy. The family is of cultural importance to the inhabitants of New Guinea. The trade in skins and feathers of the birds-of-paradise has been going on for two thousand years. The birds have been of considerable interest to Western collectors, ornithologists and writers as well. A number of species are threatened by hunting and habitat loss.

 

Description

Birds of paradise are generally crow-like in general body-form, and, indeed, are the brother group to the corvids (crows and jays). Birds-of-paradise range in size from the King Bird-of-paradise at 50 g (1.8 oz) and 15 cm (5.9 in) to the Curl-crested Manucode at 44 cm (17 in) and 430 g (15 oz). The male Black Sicklebill, with its long tail, is the longest species at 110 cm (43 in). In most of the males are larger and longer than the female, the differences ranging from slight to extreme. The wings are rounded and in some species structurally modified on the males in order to make sound. There is considerable variation in the family with regard to bill shape. Bills may be long and decurved, as in the sicklebills and riflebirds, or small and slim like the Astrapias. As with body size on average bill size varies with sex, although species where the females have larger bills than the male are more common, particularly in the insect eating species. For reasons of camouflage plumage of the females typically blends well with their habitat, unlike the bright attractive colors found on the males.

Plumage variation between the sexes is closely related to breeding system. The manucodes and Paradise-crow, which are socially monogamous, are sexually monomorphic. So are the two species of Paradigalla, which are polygamous. All these species have generally black plumage with varying amounts of green and blue iridescence.

Habitat and distribution

The centre of bird-of-paradise diversity is the large island of New Guinea; all but two genera are found in New Guinea. The two that are not are the monotypic genera Lycocorax and Semiptera, both of which are endemic to the Moluccas, to the west of New Guinea. Of the riflebirds in the genus Ptiloris, two are endemic to the coastal forests of eastern Australia, one occurs in both Australia and New Guinea, and one is only found in New Guinea. The only other genus to have a species outside New Guinea is Manucodia, one representative of which is found in the extreme north of Queensland. The remaining species are restricted to New Guinea and some of the surrounding islands. Many species have highly restricted ranges, particularly a number of species with restricted habitat types such as mid-montane forest (like the Black Sicklebill) or island endemics (like the Wilson's Bird-of-paradise). The majority of birds-of-paradise live in tropical forests, including rainforest, swamps and moss forest, nearly all of them solitary tree dwellers. Several species have been recorded in coastal mangroves. The southernmost species, the Paradise Riflebird of Australia, lives in sub-tropical and temperate wet forests. As a group the manucodes are the most plastic in their habitat requirements, with in particular the Glossy-mantled Manucode inhabiting both forest and open savanna woodland. Mid-montane habitats are the most commonly occupied habitat, with thirty of the forty species occurring in the 1000–2000 m altitudinal band.

Behaviour

Diet and feeding

The diet of the birds-of-paradise is dominated by fruit and arthropods. The ratio of the two food types varies by species, with fruit predominating in some species, and arthropods dominating the diet in others. The ratio of the two will affect other aspects of the behaviour of the species, for example frugivorous species tend to feed in the forest canopy, whereas insectivores may feed lower down. Frugivores are more social than the insectivores, which are more solitary and territorial.

Breeding

Most species have elaborate mating rituals, with the Paradisaea species using a lek-type mating system. Others, such as the Cicinnurus and Parotia species, have highly ritualised mating dances. Males are polygamous in the sexually dimorphic species, but monogamous in at least some of the monomorphic species. Hybridisation is frequent in these birds, suggesting the polygamous species of bird of paradise are very closely related despite being in different genera. Many hybrids have been described as new species, and doubt remains regarding whether some forms, such as Rothschild's Lobe-billed Bird of Paradise, are valid. Despite the presence of hybrids, some ornithologists hypothesise that at least some putative hybrids are valid species that may be extinct. Birds-of-paradise build their nests from soft materials, such as leaves, ferns, and vine tendrils, typically placed in a tree fork. Clutch size is somewhat uncertain. In the large species, it is almost always just one egg. Smaller species may produce clutches of 2–3. Eggs hatch after 16–22 days, and the young leave the nest at between 16 and 30 days of age.

Taxonomy and systematics

For many years the birds-of-paradise were treated as being closely related to the bowerbirds. Today while both are treated as being part of the Australasian lineage Corvida, the two are now only thought to be distantly related. The closest evolutionary relatives of the birds-of-paradise are the crow and jay family Corvidae, the monarch flycatchers Monarchidae and the Australian mudnesters Struthideidae. A 2009 study examining the mitochondrial DNA of all species to examine the relationships within the family and to its nearest relatives estimated that the family emerged 24 million years ago, older than previous estimates. The study identified five clades within the family, and placed the split between the first clade, which contains the monogamous manucodes and Paradise-crow, and all the other birds-of-paradise, to be 10 million years ago. The second clade includes the parotias and the King of Saxony Bird-of-paradise. The third clade provisionally contains a number of genera, Seleucidis, the Drepanornis sicklebills, Semioptera, Ptiloris and Lophorina, but support values for some of these is inclusions is low. The fourth clade includes the Epimachus sicklebills, Paradigalla and the astrapias. The final clade includes the Cicinnurus and the Paradisaea birds-of-paradise. The exact limits of the family have been the subject of revision as well. The three species of satinbird (the genera Cnemophilus and Loboparadisea) were treated as a subfamily of the birds-of-paradise, Cnemophilinae. In spite of differences in the mouth, foot morphology and nesting habits they remained in the family until a 2000 study moved them to a separate family closer to the berrypeckers and longbills (Melanocharitidae). The same study found that the Macgregor's Bird-of-paradise was actually a member of the large Australasian honeyeater family. In addition to these three species, a number of systematically enigmatic species and genera have been considered potential members of this family. The two species in the genus Melampitta, also from New Guinea, have been linked with the birds-of-paradise, but their relationships remain uncertain, more recently being linked with the Australian mudnesters. The Silktail of Fiji has been linked with the birds-of-paradise many times since its discovery, but never formerly assigned to the family. Recent molecular evidence now places the species with the fantails.

Sumatran Elephant

The Sumatran Elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian Elephant, and native to Sumatra island of Indonesia. In January 2011 the Sumatran elephant has been classified as critically endangered by IUCN as the population has declined by at least 80% over the last three generations, estimated to be about 75 years. The subspecies is pre-eminently threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation; over 69% of potential elephant habitat has been lost within the last 25 years.

Characteristics

In general, Asian elephants are smaller than African elephants and have the highest body point on the head. The tip of their trunk has one finger-like process. Their back is convex or level. Females are usually smaller than males, and have short or no tusks. Sumatran elephants reach a shoulder height of between 2 and 3.2 m (6.6 and 10.5 ft), weigh between 2,000 and 4,000 kg (4,400 and 8,800 lb), and have 20 pairs of ribs. Their skin color is lighter than of maximus and indicus with least depigmentation.

Distribution of populations

The Sumatran elephant was once widespread on the island, and Riau Province was believed to have the largest elephant population in Sumatra with over 1,600 individuals in the 1980s. In 1985, an island-wide rapid survey suggested that between 2,800 and 4,800 elephants lived in all eight mainland provinces of Sumatra in 44 populations. Twelve of these populations occurred in Lampung Province, where only three populations were extant in 2002 according to surveys carried out between September 2000 and March 2002. The population in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park was estimated at 498 individuals, while the population in Way Kambas National Park was estimated at 180 individuals. The third population in Gunung Rindingan–Way Waya complex was considered to be too small to be viable over the long-term.

By 2008, elephants had become locally extinct in 23 of the 43 ranges identified in Sumatra in 1985, indicating a very significant decline of the Sumatran elephant population up to that time. By 2008, the elephant was locally extinct in West Sumatra Province and at risk of being lost from North Sumatra Province too. In Riau Province only about 350 elephants survived across nine separate ranges.

Threats

The remaining population is threatened by habitat loss, poaching, and as a result of conflict with humans. 65% of Sumatran elephant deaths are because of human persecution.[citation needed] 30% of this human persecution is through poisoning because of fear of the animal. 83% of the Sumatran elephant's former habitat has now been turned into plantations; this means that the elephant has to learn to adapt to new habitats if it is to live.

Conservation

Elephas maximus is listed on CITES Appendix I. Sumatran elephants are protected under Indonesia law. In 2004, the Tesso Nilo National Park has been established in Riau province to protect the Sumatran elephant's habitat. This forest is one of the last areas large enough to support a viable population of elephants.

In captivity

In 1986 the Indonesian government started establishing Elephant Training Centers intended to capture and train elephants for use in logging, patrol work, and tourism. Currently there are six provincial centres on 11 separate sites, that hold approximately 400 elephants.

Population

In mid 1980s, when about 50% of natural forest remained on the island, elephant populations persisted in 44 discrete populations on all of the island’s eight provinces (Hedges et al. 2005). 1985: An island-wide rapid survey suggested that between 2,800 and 4,800 elephants lived in the wild in 44 ranges in all eight mainland provinces of Sumatra (Blouch and Haryanto 1984). Riau Province was believed to have the largest elephant population in Sumatra. 2002: Sumatra was still thought to contain some of the largest populations of Asian elephants outside of India and Sri Lanka. Rigorous dung density based surveys in Lampung Province’s two national parks, Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas, produced population estimates of 498 (95% CI=[373, 666]) and 180 (95% CI=[144, 225]) elephants, respectively. But province-wide surveys at the same time also showed that by 2002 elephants had gone locally extinct in nine of 12 elephant ranges recorded in Lampung in the early 1980s (Hedges et. al. 2005).

2007: Guesstimates suggested that between 2,400 and 2,800 elephants live in the wild (Soehartono et al. 2007). Given the very high number of elephants brought into captivity since 1985 (Mikota et al. 2003), the high mortality experienced during these government capture-and-translocation operations, and the high numbers of elephants lost to retaliatory killing after human–elephant conflict (WWF 2008) and poaching (based on local newspaper reports), it is highly likely that Sumatra’s total elephant population size in 1985 might actually have been greater than even that year’s high estimate of 4,800 elephants suggests. In any case, in only one generation (between 1985 and 2007) Sumatra may have lost up to 50% of its elephants. 2008: By 2008, elephants had become locally extinct in 23 of the 43 ranges identified in Sumatra in 1985, indicating a very significant decline of the Sumatran elephant population up to that time. By 2008, the elephant was locally extinct in one of Sumatra’s eight mainland provinces (West Sumatra) and at risk of being lost from North Sumatra Province too. Only ca. 350 elephants survived across nine separate ranges in Riau Province, which in 1985 was considered to have the largest elephant population in Sumatra with over 1,600 individuals.

Post-2008: Simple extrapolations from past population history suggests that Riau’s last surviving elephants may soon disappear if the current trend of forest loss continues (Uryu et al. 2008). Indeed, a 2009 survey of nine forest blocks in Riau that had elephant herds in 2007 revealed that six herds had gone extinct (Desai and Samsuardi 2009). Systematic study on the population of Sumatran Elephants is lacking from most of the elephant’s distributional range. Province-wide assessments have been conducted in Riau (Desai and Samsuardi 2009) and Lampung (Hedges et al. 2005). However, rigorous population estimates are only available from two protected areas in Lampung, namely Way Kambas National Park and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park (Hedges et al. 2005, Soehartono et al. 2007). Riau. Harboring extensive flat lowland forest that is a prime habitat for elephant, Riau province was one of the strongholds for elephant conservation. However, elephant numbers in this province dropped by 84% in less than 25 years (Uryu et al. 2007).  The population declined from ca. 1,342 in 1984 to ca. 210 in 2007. Due to habitat fragmentation, the number of fragmented elephant populations (“pockets”) increased from nine in 1984 to 16 in 1999. By 2007, mainly due to removal and killings related to conflicts, elephants were completely extirpated in several “pockets” including Rokan Hilir, Kerumutan, Koto Panjang, Bukit Rimbang Baling, Tanjung Pauh and Bukit Suligi. Thorough population estimates are not yet available  the latest assessment indicates that all  but two of these fragmented elephant populations are unlikely to survive over the long term. West Sumatra. Elephants have been completely extirpated from this province.

Lampung. Twelve of the 44 Sumatran elephant populations identified in the mid-1989s occurred in Lampung Province. But, according to surveys conducted in 2001 and 2002 only three were still extant in 2002, and one of those was not considered viable (Hedges et al. 2005). Surveys in the early 2000s using dung density based methods in Lampung Province’s two national parks, Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas, produced population estimates of 498 (95% CI=[373, 666]) and 180 (95% CI=[144, 225]) elephants, respectively (Hedges et al. 2005). New field surveys using fecal DNA based capture–recapture methods are currently underway in the two national parks (S. Hedges pers comm).

Sumatran Tiger

The Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) is a tiger subspecies that inhabits the Indonesian island of Sumatra and has been classified as critically endangered by IUCN in 2008 as the population is projected to be 441 to 679 individuals, with no subpopulation having an effective population size larger than 50 individuals, with a declining trend. The Sumatran tiger is the only surviving member of the Sunda Islands group of tigers that included the now extinct Bali tiger and Javan tiger. Sequences from complete mitochondrial genes of 34 tigers support the hypothesis that Sumatran tigers are diagnostically distinct from mainland populations.

Characteristics

The Sumatran tiger is the smallest of the tiger subspecies as compared to the Siberian tiger which is the largest. Sumatran male tigers average 8 feet (2.438m) in length from head to tail and weigh about 265 lbs.(120.2 kg). Females average 7 feet (2.134 m) in length and weigh about 200 lbs (90.718 kg). The smaller size of the Sumatran tiger makes it easier to move quickly through the jungle. Also, their stripes are narrower than other tiger species. The tiger's patterned coloring is an adaptation for camouflage in their natural habitat, which is often tall grass. The males, especially, have a more bearded and maned appearance in which neck and cheek hair are well developed. Webbing between their toes, when spread, enables the Sumatran tiger to be a very fast swimmer. It will, if given the chance, run hoofed prey, who are much slower swimmers, into the water. The white spots on the back of the tiger's ears are called "eye spots" or "predator spots." These spots are believed to function as false eyes as well as to make it look larger to any predator approaching from behind. This is particularly helpful in keeping cubs safe.

Genetics and evolution

Analysis of DNA is consistent with the hypothesis that Sumatran tigers have been isolated from other tiger populations after a rise in sea level that occurred at the Pleistocene to Holocene border (about 12,000-6,000 years ago). In agreement with this evolutionary history, the Sumatran tiger is genetically isolated from all living mainland tigers, which form a distinct group closely related to each other.

The Sumatran tiger represents a uniquely hopeful opportunity for the survival of an individual subspecies of tiger in the wild. Specifically, the animal is isolated geographically to the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. This is important for many reasons. First, the animal has been genetically isolated. This offers felid biologists the opportunity to study the effects of such genetic isolation on a particular subspecies, unlike other surviving subspecies, which until the beginning of the last century, could roam among and between the realms of neighboring subspecies.

Wild Sumatran tigers have survived within the isolated and somewhat continuous political environment of the Island of Sumatra. This has afforded researchers, such as The Sumatran Tiger Project team, an opportunity to study these animals' genetic status in their natural habitat over an extended period of time. As a result, important first-hand field data has been generated which is relevant to all the surviving tiger subspecies.

Sumatran tigers are especially well represented in zoos around the world, most of which participate in sophisticated global conservation breeding programs. More than 270 Sumatran tigers are now documented in formal studbooks and are involved in captive breeding programs aimed at preserving their genetic uniqueness. This captive population is occasionally supplemented by wild Sumatran tigers, which are captured when they come into conflict with their surrounding human populations, or are rescued from situations that preclude them from living in the wild. Thanks to the presence of a one-of-a-kind research facility at Taman Safari on the island of Java, these tigers and their extremely rare genes can be preserved instead of being exterminated like most other problem tigers. Through an important scientific, community and political collaboration, these tigers have been spared so that their precious genes may bolster breeding programs for the Sumatran subspecies.

Unfortunately, the political stability that has benefited Sumatran tiger research has been interrupted recently by the violent demise of the Suharto regime. Foreign nationals conducting tiger-related research in Indonesia were forced to flee for the sake of their personal safety. The Indonesian researchers left behind faced tremendous obstacles in perpetuating their delicate work, even to the point where many of the tigers involved in the conservation breeding program at Taman Safari could not be properly fed. In a happy turn of events, the civil unrest associated with the destabilization of the Indonesian political situation has been largely settled. Negotiations are underway to establish a new framework for the conservation efforts and scientific research that has been conducted by The Sumatran Tiger project.

Distribution and habitat

The Sumatran tiger is found only on the Indonesian island of Sumatra in habitat that ranges from lowland forest to sub-mountain and mountain forest including some peat moss forests. According to the Tiger Information Center and the World Wildlife Fund there are no more than 500 of these tigers left in the wild with some estimates considerably lower. Sumatra has undergone much agricultural growth and as a result, tiger habitat has become fragmented with about 400 tigers inhabiting five National Parks and two Game Reserves. The largest populations live in the Kerinci Seblat National Park and Gunung Leuser National Park. Another 100 live in unprotected areas that will soon be lost to agriculture. The tigers that live in unprotected areas are very vulnerable to poaching as well as the killing of problem animals that come in contact with villagers encroaching upon the animals' habitat.

Ecology and behaviour

Sumatran tigers commonly prey on larger ungulates like wild pig, Malayan Tapir, and deer, and sometimes also smaller animals such as fowl, monkeys, and fish. Orangutans could be prey, but since they spend a minimal amount of time on the ground, tigers rarely catch one. Sumatran tigers will sometimes prey upon mice and other small mammals when larger prey is scarce.

Threats

The continuing loss of habitat is intensifying the crises to save this tiger. Deforestation resulting from the production of palm oil is a major threat to the Sumatran Tiger.[4] The reserves also do not provide safety, as many tigers are killed by poachers each year despite conservation efforts. Sun bears and sloth bears have been known to be very dangerous opponents for tigers in lower asian countries. They have overwhelmed tigers on ocassions.

Conservation

In 2006 the Indonesia Forestry Service, the Natural Resources and Conservational Agency (BKSDA) and the Sumatran Tiger Conservation Program sat down with commercial concession holders and Asia Pulp & Paper and set the foundations for the Senepis Buluhala Tiger Sanctuary, an area that covered 106,000 hectares in Riau by 2008. These organizations formed The Tiger Conservation Working Group with other interested parties and the project is recognised as a pioneering initiative. Current studies include the identifying of feeding behavior of tigers to develop strategies that will help protect both tigers and human settlements.

In 2007, the Indonesian Forestry Ministry and Safari Park established cooperation with the Australia Zoo for the conservation of Sumatran Tigers and other endangered species. The cooperation agreement was marked by the signing of a Letter of Intent on 'Sumatran Tiger and other Endangered Species Conservation Program and the Establishment of a Sister Zoo Relationship between Taman Safari and Australia Zoo' at the Indonesian Forestry Ministry office on July 31, 2007. The program includes conserving Sumatran Tigers and other endangered species in the wild, efforts to reduce conflicts between tigers and humans and rehabilitating Sumatran Tigers and reintroducing them to their natural habitat.

The Tambling Wildlife Nature Conservation with a rehabilitation center has been set up in a 110,000 acre conservation area abutting a national park on the southern tip of Sumatra (Lampung).[5] On October 26, 2011 a tigress which had been captured with an injured leg in early October delivered three male cubs in a temporary cage, while waiting for release after its recovery.